Far-Right in Ukraine before and after Euromaidan: From Ultranationalist Party Policy to EthnoCentral “Non-Civil” Society

Partisan-political ultranationalism was so far weak in post-Soviet Ukraine. Thethreemain political forces, VO “Svoboda”, “Right Sector” and “National Corps”, despite the increased public awareness and growing nationalist sentiments among the population of Ukraine, remained politically marginalized after the 2013-2014 Euromaidan. Neither the loss of Crimea nor the war in Donbass increased the electoral support of radical nationalist groups. However, in the context of Russia's ongoing “hybrid war” against Ukraine, far-right activists, sometimes associated with ultra-nationalist political parties, have gained more recognition in the Ukrainian public since 2014. The activities of anti-democratic non-governmental organizations and their periodic cooperation with the Ukrainian state require careful monitoring. This article provides an overview of the development of the right-wing radical political spectrum in Ukraine before and after the “Revolution of Dignity”.

Ukraine, nationalism, radicalism, parties, elections, extremism

1. Aslund, Anders. How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy. Washington, DC: Peterson Institute, 2009.

2. Bakic, Jovo. Right-Wing Extremism in Serbia. International Policy Analysis. Berlin: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2013.

3. Balutenko, M., Pribylovskiy V. Kto yest’ kto v politike na Ukraine: biograficheskiy sbornik (Who Is Who in Politics in Ukraine: Biographical Collection). Moscow, 2007. Pp. 141-143.

4. Beichelt, Timm; Worschech, Susann (eds.). Transnational Ukraine? Networks and Ties that Influence(d) Contemporary Ukraine. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag, 2017.

5. Belitser Natal’ya. Vseukrainskoye ob”yedineniye «Svoboda» i yego elektorat, 2012-2013 (All-Ukrainian Association “Freedom” and Its Electorate, 2012-2013) // Ideologiya i politika, 2013, No. 2(4), pp. 8-92.

6. Berman, Sheri. Civil Society and the Collapse of the Weimar Republic // World Politics, 1997, No. 49(3), pp. 401-429.

7. Bertelsen, Olga (ed.). Revolution and War in Contemporary Ukraine: The Challenge of Change. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag, 2016. Bezruk, Tetjana; Umland, Andreas. Der Fall Azov: Freiwilligenbataillone in der Ukraine // Osteuropa, 2015, No. 65(1-2), pp. 33-42.

8. Boyd, Richard. Uncivil Society: The Perils of Pluralism and the Making of Modern Liberalism. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004.

9. Bustikova, Lenka. Voting, Identity and Security Threats in Ukraine: Who Supports the Radical ‘Freedom’ Party? // Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 2015, No. 48(2), pp. 239-256.

10. Chambers, Simone; Kopstein, Jeffrey. Bad Civil Society // Political Theory, 2001, No. 29(6), pp. 837-865.

11. D’Anieri, Paul J. (ed.). Orange Revolution and Aftermath: Mobilization, Apathy, and the State in Ukraine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010.

12. D’Anieri, Paul; Kuzio, Taras; Harasymiw, Bohdan; Ilnytzkyj, Oleh S.; Bredies, Ingmar; Umland, Andreas; Yakushik, Valentin (eds.). Aspects of the Orange Revolution I-VI. 6 Vols. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag, 2007.

13. Dyczok, Marta. Ukraine: Movement without Change, Change without Movement. Abingdon: Routledge, 2000.

14. Dymerskaya-Tsigelman, Liudmila; Finberg, Leonid. Antisemitism of the Ukrainian Radical Nationalists: Ideology and Policy (Analysis of Current Trends in Antisemitism 14). Jerusalem: SICSA, 1999.

15. Fedor, Julie ed. Russian Media and the War in Ukraine // Journal of Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society, 2015, No. 1(1), pp. 1-300.

16. Fedorenko, Kostiantyn. The Two Movements: Liberals and Nationalists during Euromaidan // Ideology and Politics, 2015, No. 1(5), pp. 4-35.

17. Fedorenko, Kostiantyn; Umland, Andreas. Zwischen Front und Parlament: Freiwilligenverbände und Parteien in der Ukraine // Osteuropa, 2019, No. 69(3-4), pp. 163-176.

18. Flikke, Geir; Kisselyov, Sergiy (eds.). Beyond Recognition? Ukraine and Europe after the Orange Revolution. Oslo: NUSPI, 2006.

19. Gomza, Ivan. Elusive Proteus: A Study in the Ideological Morphology of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists // Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 2015, No. 2-3, pp. 195-207.

20. Gomza, Ivan; Zajaczkowski, Johann. Black Sun Rising: Political Opportunity Structure Perceptions and Institutionalization of the Azov Movement in Post-Euromaidan Ukraine // Nationalities Papers, 2019, No. 47(5), pp. 774-800.

21. Gorbach, D.; Petik, O. Azovskiy shlyakh: kak ul’trapravoye dvizheniye boretsya za mesto v politicheskom meynstrime Ukrainy (Azovskiy Shlyakh: How the Ultra-Right Movement Is Fighting for a Place in the Political Mainstream of Ukraine) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2016, No. 13(1), pp. 179-192.

22. Gritsenko, A. Ukrainskiye svyazi Boyevoy organizatsii russkikh natsionalistov: kontakty i konteksty v doi postmaydannoy Ukraine (Ukrainian Ties of the Combat Organization of Russian Nationalists: Contacts and Contexts in Preand post-Maidan Ukraine) vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2015, No. 13(1), pp. 180-193.

23. Hanebrink, Paul. A Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018.

24. Hauter, Jakob. Delegated Interstate War: Introducing an Addition to Armed Conflict Typologies // Journal of Strategic Security, 2019, No. 12(4), pp. 90-103.

25. Heinemann-Grüder, Andreas. Geiselnehmer oder Retter des Staates? Irreguläre Bataillone in der Ukraine // Osteuropa, 2019, No. 69(3-4), pp. 51-80.

26. Hosaka, Sanshiro. Welcome to Surkov’s Theater: Russian Political Technology in the Donbas War // Nationalities Papers, 2019, Volume 47, Special Issue 5, pp. 750-773.

27. Ishchenko, V. Uchastiye krayne pravykh v protestnykh sobytiyakh Maydana: Popytka sistematicheskogo analiza (Participation of the Extreme Right in the Protest Events of the Maidan: An Attempt of a Systematic Analysis) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2016, № 13(1), pp. 103-127.

28. Kailitz, Steffen; Umland, Andreas. Why Fascists Took Over the Reichstag but Have Not Captured the Kremlin: A Comparison of Weimar Germany and Post-Soviet Russia // Nationalities Papers, 2017, No. 45(2), pp. 206-221.

29. Kopecky, Petr; Mudde, Cas, eds. Uncivil Society? Contentious Politics in Post-Communist Europe. London: Routledge, 2012.

30. Kowal, Paweł; Mink, Georges; Reichardt, Adam; Reichardt, Iwona (eds.). Three Revolutions: Mobilization and Change in Contemporary Ukraine I-II. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag, 2019.

31. Kubicek, Paul. What Happened to the Nationalists in Ukraine? // Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 1999, No. 5(1), pp. 29-45.

32. Kulyk, Volodymyr. Ukrainian Nationalism since the Outbreak of Euromaidan // Ab Imperio, 2014, No. 3, pp. 94122.

33. Kuzio, Taras. Radical Nationalist Parties and Movements in Contemporary Ukraine Before and After Independence: The Right and its Politics, 1989-1994 // Nationalities Papers, 1997, No. 25(2), pp. 211-242.

34. Likhachev, V. Mesto antisemitizma v ideologii i propagande Vseukrainskogo ob”yedineniya ‘Svoboda’ (The Place of anti-Semitism in the Ideology and Propaganda of the All-Ukrainian Association ‘Freedom’) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2013, No. 9(1), pp. 111-134.

35. Likhachev, Viacheslav. Right-Wing Extremism in Ukraine: The Phenomenon of “Svoboda.” Kyiv: EAJC, 2013.

36. Likhachev, Viacheslav. Right-Wing Extremism on the Rise in Ukraine // Russian Politics and Law, 2013, No. 51(5), pp. 59-74.

37. Likhachev, Viacheslav. Social-Nationalists in the Ukrainian Parliament: How They Got There and What We Can Expect of Them // Russian Politics and Law, 2013, No. 51(5), pp. 75-85.

38. Likhachev, Viacheslav. The ‘Right Sector’ and Others: The Behavior and Role of Radical Nationalists in the Ukrainian Political Crisis of Late 2013 – Early 2014 // Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 2015, No. 48(2), pp. 257-271.

39. Likhachev, Vyacheslav. Far-right Extremism as a Threat to Ukrainian Democracy / Freedom House Nations in Transit Brief, May 2018.

40. Likhachev, Vyacheslav. Ukrainskiye natsional-radikaly protiv prorossiyskikh «separatistov»: ulichnaya voyna (fevral’may 2014) (Ukrainian National Radicals Against Pro-Russian “Separatists”: Street Warfare (February-May 2014)) / Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2016, No. 13(1), pp. 128-140.

41. Luks, Leonid. Vergeblicher Versuch, den Holocaust ‘rational’ zu erklären // Forum für osteuropäische Ideenund Zeitgeschichte, 2004, No. 8(1), pp. 301-309.

42. Lushnycky, Andrej N.; Riabchuk, Mykola (eds.) Ukraine on Its Meandering Path Between East and West. Bern: Peter Lang, 2009.

43. Malyarenko, Tetyana; Galbreath, David J. Paramilitary Motivation in Ukraine: Beyond Integration and Abolition // Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 2016, No. 16(1), pp. 113-138.

44. Marples, David R.; Mills, Frederick V. (eds.). Ukraine’s Euromaidan: Analyses of a Civil Revolution. Stuttgart: IbidemVerlag, 2015.

45. McFaul, Michael; Aslund, Anders (eds.). Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine’s Democratic Breakthrough. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2006.

46. Mierzejewski-Voznyak, Melanie. The Radical Right in PostSoviet Ukraine. In Jens Rydgren, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. Pp. 608-629.

47. Miynssen, I. Kuznitsa modernizatsii na ozere Seliger: dvizheniye «Nashi», putinskiy patriotizm i Vserossiyskiy molodezhnyy obrazovatel’nyy forum 2005-2010 gg. (Forge of Modernization on Lake Seliger: the Nashi Movement, Putin’s patriotism and the All-Russian Youth Educational Forum 20052010) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2012, No. 2, pp. 132-157.

48. Moser, Michael. Language Policy and Discourse on Languages in Ukraine Under President Viktor Yanukovych. 25 February 2010 – 28 October 2012. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag, 2013.

49. Mudde, Cas. Warum ist der Rechtsradikalismus in Osteuropa so schwach? // Osteuropa, 2002, No. 52(5), pp. 626-630.

50. Mykhnenko, Vlad. Causes and Consequences of the War in Eastern Ukraine: An Economic Geography Perspective, Europe-Asia Studies, 2020.

51. Nahaylo, Bohdan. Ukraine / RFE/RL Research Report: The Politics of Intolerance, 1994, No. 3(16), pp. 42-49.

52. Panina, N. Faktori natsional’noy identichnosti, tolerantnosti, ksenofobii i antisemitizma v sovremennoy Ukraine (Factors of National Identity, Tolerance, Xenophobia and Anti-Semitism in modern Ukraine) // Vestnik obshchestvennogo mneniya, 2006, No. 1, pp. 26-38.

53. Paniotto, Vladimir. Dinamika ksenofobii i antisemitizma v Ukraine (1994-2007) (Dynamics of Xenophobia and AntiSemitism in Ukraine (1994-2007)) // Sotsiologiya: teoriya, metody, marketing, 2008, No. 1, pp. 197-213.

54. Payne, Leigh A. Uncivil Movements: The Armed Right Wing and Democracy in Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.

55. Pedahzur Ami; Weinberg, Leonard. Modern European Democracies and Its Enemies: The Threat of the Extreme Right // Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 2001, No. 2(1), pp. 52-72.

56. Piotrowski ,Grzegorz. Civil Society, Un-Civil Society and the Social Movements // Interface: A Journal for and about Social Movements, 2009, No. 1(2), pp. 166-189.

57. Polyakova, A. From the Provinces to the Parliament: How the Ukrainian Radical Right Mobilized in Galicia // Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 2014, No. 47(2), pp. 211-225.

58. Puglisi, Rosaria. Heroes or Villains? Volunteer Battalions in Post-Maidan Ukraine / IAI Working Papersm, 2015, No. 15(8).

59. Rabe, Jan. Rechtsextremismus in der Ukraine: Gruppierungen und ihre Aktivitäten im Überblick. Berlin: Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, 2019.

60. Ramet, Sabrina (ed.). The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe Since 1989. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.

61. Risch, William Jay. What the Far Right Does Not Tell Us about the Maidan // Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 2015, No. 16(1), pp. 137-144.

62. Rossoliński-Liebe, Grzegorz. Stepan Bandera: The Life and Afterlife of a Ukrainian Nationalist. Fascism, Genocide, and Cult. Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag, 2014.

63. Rudling, Per Anders. Anti-Semitism and the Extreme Right in Contemporary Ukraine. In Mammone, Godin, and Jenkins. Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe, 2012. Pp. 189-205.

64. Rudling, Per Anders. Eugenics and Racial Anthropology in the Ukrainian Radical Nationalist Tradition // Science in Context, 2019, No. 32, pp. 67-91.

65. Rudling, Per Anders. The Cult of Roman Shukhevych in Ukraine: Myth Making with Complications // Fascism: Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies, 2016, No. 5(1), pp. 26-65.

66. Rudling, Per Anders. The Return of the Ukrainian Far Right: The Case of VO Svoboda. In Ruth Wodak and John E. Richardson, eds. Analyzing Fascist Discourse: European Fascism in Talk and Text. London: Routledge, 2013. Pp. 228-255.

67. Sergackova, Ekaterina. Freiwillig: Kleines Who’s Who ukrainischer Bataillonskommandeure // Osteuropa, 2015, No. 65(1-2), pp. 23-32.

68. Shekhovtsov, A. Palingeneticheskiy proyekt neoyevraziystva: ideivozrozhdeniyavmirovozzreniiAleksandra Dugina (Palingenetic Project of neo-Eurasianism: Ideas of Revival in the Worldview of Alexander Dugin) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2009, No. 2, pp. 105-126.

69. Shekhovtsov, Anton. From Para-Militarism to Radical Right-Wing Populism: The Rise of the Ukrainian Far-Right Party Svoboda. In Wodak, Mral, and KhosraviNik, Right Wing Populism in Europe, 2013. Pp. 249-263.

70. Shekhovtsov, Anton. Radikale Parteien, irreguläre Verbände: Ukrainische Milizen aus dem rechtsextremistischen Milieu // Osteuropa, 2019, No. 69(3-4), pp. 149-162.

71. Shekhovtsov, Anton. The Creeping Resurgence of the Ukrainian Radical Right? The Case of the Freedom Party // Europe-Asia Studies, 2011, No. 63(2), pp. 203-228

72. Shekhovtsov, Anton. The Ukrainian Far Right and the Ukrainian Revolution. In Irina Vainovski-Mihai, ed. N.E.C. Black Sea Link Program Yearbook 2014-2015. Bucharest: New Europe College, 2015. Pp. 216-237.

73. Shekhovtsov, Anton; Polyakova, Alina. On the Rise: Europe’s Fringe Right // World Affairs, No. 179(1), pp. 70-80.

74. Shekhovtsov, Anton; Umland, Andreas. Ukraine’s Radical Right // Journal of Democracy, 2014, No. 25(3), pp. 58-63.

75. Shekhovtsov, Anton; Umland, Andreas. Ultraright Party Politics in Post-Soviet Ukraine and the Puzzle of the Electoral Marginalism of Ukrainian Ultranationalists in 1994-2009 // Russian Politics and Law, 2013, No. 51(5), pp. 33-58.

76. Shkandrij, Myroslav. Ukrainian Nationalism: Politics, Ideology, and Literature, 1929-1956. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.

77. Shnirel’man, V. Yevraziya ili Yevropa? Rol’ Ukrainy v yevraziyskom i Yevrazii v ukrainskom diskurse (Eurasia or Europe?TheRoleofUkraineinEurasianandEurasiainUkrainian Discourse) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2009, No. 1.

78. Shukan, Ioulia. Defending Ukraine at the Rear of the Armed Conflict in Donbas: Wartime Vigilantism in Odessa (2014-2018) // Laboratorium: Russian Review of Social Research, 2020, No. 11(3), pp. 71-104.

79. Stepanenko, Viktor; Pylynskyi, Yaroslav (eds.). Ukraine after the Euromaidan: Challenges and Hopes. Bern: Peter Lang, 2015.

80. Stojarová, Vera. The Far Right in the Balkans. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016.

81. Struve, Kai. Deutsche Herrschaft, ukrainischer Nationalismus, antijüdische Gewalt: Der Sommer 1941 in der Westukraine. München: DeGruyter-Oldenbourg, 2015.

82. Taras Kuzio. Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives on Nationalism: New Directions in Cross-Cultural and PostCommunist Studies. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag, 2007.

83. Toal, Gerard. Near Abroad: Putin, the West and the Contest over Ukraine and the Caucasus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.

84. Ukrainskiye pravyye ekstremisty vo vremya i posle vosstaniya 2013-2014 gg. (Ukrainian Right-Wing Extremists during and after the 2013-2014 Uprising) // Spetssektsiya zhurnala Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury (Special section of the journal Forum of Contemporary East European History and Culture), 2013, No. 13(1), pp. 103-206.

85. Umland Andreas; Zaitsev, Oleksandr (eds.). The Ukrainian Radical Right in Past and Present: Studies in Ideology, Memory and Politics / Special Section of Communist and PostCommunist Studies, 2015, No. 48(2-3), p. 169-271.

86. Umland, A. Dobrovol’cheskiye vooruzhennyye formirovaniya i radikal’nyy natsionalizm v poslemaydannoy Ukraine: nekotoryye osobennosti vozniknoveniya polka «Azov» (Volunteer Armed Formations and Radical Nationalism in postMaidan Ukraine: Some Features of the Emergence of the Azov Regiment) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2016, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 141-178.

87. Umland, A. Patologicheskiye tendentsii v russkom «neoyevraziystve»: o znachenii vzleta Aleksandra Dugina dlya interpretatsii obshchestvennoy zhizni sovremennoy Rossii (Pathological Tendencies in Russian “neo-Eurasianism”: on the Significance of Alexander Dugin’s Take-off for the Interpretation of the Social Life of Modern Russia) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2009, No. 2, pp. 127-143.

88. Umland, Andreas (ed). Post-Soviet Ukrainian Right-Wing Extremism // Special Issue of Russian Politics & Law, 2013, № 51(5). С. 3-95.

89. Umland, Andreas. A Typical Variety of European RightWing Radicalism? // Russian Politics and Law, 2013, No. 51(5) pp. 86-95.

90. Umland, Andreas. Der Begriff der ‘unzivilen Gesellschaft’ als Instrument der historischen und aktuellen Rechtsextremismusforschung // Forschungsjournal Neue Soziale Bewegungen, 2008, No. 21(4), pp. 63-67.

91. Umland, Andreas. Die andere Anomalie der Ukraine: ein Parlament ohne rechtsradikale Fraktionen // Ukraine-Analysen, 2008, No. 41, pp. 7-10.

92. Umland, Andreas. Dobrovol’cheskiye vooruzhennyye formirovaniya i radikal’nyy natsionalizm v poslemaydannoy Ukraine: nekotoryye osobennosti vozniknoveniya polka ‘Azov’ (Volunteer Armed Formations and Radical Nationalism in PostMaid Ukraine: Some Features of the Emergence of the Azov Regiment) // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2016, No. 13(1), pp. 141-178.

93. Umland, Andreas. Does Yanukovich’s Coalition Government Have a Popular Mandate? The ‘Tushki’ and Decline of Ukrainian Representative Democracy // Foreign Policy Journal, 27 March 2010. Mode of access: www. foreignpolicyjournal.com/2010/03/27/does-yanukovichscoalition-government-have-a-popular-mandate/

94. Umland, Andreas. How Moscow Is Subverting Ukraine’s Bid for Freedom // Foreign Policy, 26 February 2016.

95. Umland, Andreas. Irregular Militias and Radical Nationalism in Post-Euromaidan Ukraine: The Prehistory and Emergence of the ‘Azov’ Battalion in 2014 // Terrorism and Political Violence, 2019, No. 31(1), pp. 105-131.

96. Umland, Andreas. Orange Revolution als Scheideweg: Demokratisierungsschub in der Ukraine, Restaurationsimpuls in Russland // Osteuropa, 2009, No. 59(11), pp. 109-120.

97. Umland, Andreas. Starting Post-Soviet Ukrainian RightWing Extremism Studies from Scratch: Guest Editor’s Introduction // Russian Politics and Law, 2013, No. 51(5), pp. 3-10.

98. Umland, Andreas. The Right-Wing Extremisms of Post-Soviet Russia and Ukraine, 1991-2014: Hypotheses on Differences in Their Permutation and Performance / Presentation to the Danyliw Seminar on Contemporary Ukraine, University of Ottawa, 2 November, 2014.

99. Umland, Andreas; Yurchuk, Yuliya, eds. Issues in the History and Memory of the OUN I-III // Special sections of the Journal of Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society, 20172020, No. 3(2): pp. 115-290, No. 4(2), pp. 29-132, No. 6(1), pp. 185-311.

100. Vasil’chenko, S. ‘Svoboda’ protiv vsekh: kratkiy obzor rezul’tatov radikal’nykh pravykh na vyborakh 1994-2012 [‘Freedom’ against All: a Brief Overview of the Results of the Radical Right in the 1994-2012 Elections] // Forum noveyshey vostochnoyevropeyskoy istorii i kul’tury, 2013, No. 9(1), pp. 64-92.

101. Wilson, Andrew. Ukraine Crisis: What It Means for the West. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014.

102. Wilson, Andrew. Ukraine’s Orange Revolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.

103. Wood, Elizabeth A. et al. Roots of Russia’s War in Ukraine. New York, NY: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2016.

104. Yurchuk, Yuliya. Reclaiming the Past, Confronting the Past: OUN-UPA Memory Politics and Nation-Building in Ukraine (1991-2016). In Julie Fedor, Markku Kangaspuro, Jussi Lassila and Tatiana Zhurzhenko, eds. War and Memory in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. Pp. 107-137.

105. Zaitsev, Oleksandr. Ukrainian Integral Nationalism in Quest of a ‘Special Path’ (1920s-1930s) // Russian Politics & Law, 2013, No. 5, pp. 11-32.

106. Zajaczkowski, Johan. Homogenität und Fragmentierung: Ukrainische Freiwilligenbataillone im Wandel // Osteuropa, 2019, No. 69(3-4), pp. 81-102.

107. Бендза, Галина. УНА-УНСО: Нове обличчя? / Студії політологічного центру Генеза, 1997, No. 1, pp. 48-51.

108. Кулик В. Український націоналізм у незалежній Україні. Київ, 1999: НаУКМА.

109. Липовецький Святослав. Організація українських націоналістів (бандерівці): фрагменти діяльності та боротьби. Київ: Українська видавнича спілка, 2010.

110. Ліхачов, В’ячеслав. Від Майдану праворуч: Революція, війна и ультраправі в Україні (2013-2016 роки). Київ: Критика, 2020.

111. Нахманович, В. Феномен «Свободи»: Виборці радикальних націоналістів у дзеркалі соціології. Київ: КМІС/ ВААД, 2016.

112. Панченко В.Г. Легалізація та діяльність ОУН в Україні протягом 1990-х рр. / Наукові праці історичного факультету Запорізького національного університету. 2011. No. 30. Pp. 38-41.

113. Шеховцов, Антон. Всеукраїнське об’єднання «Свобода»: проблема легітимності боротьби за владу // Україна Модерна, 2013, No. 20, pp. 171-213.